Marc Antony - 1183 Words

Independent Study Project Ancient History Someone is not born with greatness, they are destined with greatness. Achieving greatness in leadership may be hard to maintain, keeping it and being known for your greatness is even harder to accomplish. Greatness can be achieved through military victories, being appointed a high officer, known as a political figure and considering the lower-class citizens. Many leaders strive to reach being one of the people’s greatest leaders, but many fail. However, there is one in particular who was capable of achieving the position of being known as ‘one of the people’s greatest leaders’. Marc Antony, who served with Julius Caesar, was known as one of the people’s greatest leaders for being a warrior,†¦show more content†¦Playing a part in many military quests made Marc Antony a great military leader in the eyes of Rome, and making him known as one of the people’s greatest leaders. In the days of Julius Caesar, it was Marc Antony who was the s econd most powerful figure in Roman politics. He was a subordinate to Julius Caesar in the command of his armies and he was an influential figure in Roman politics. Antonius becomes a tribune of the people, an office with considerable political power; include veto power over legislation passed by the Senate. With this Marc Antony, being a high- political figure, he served in a tribune, a group designed to represent the rights of lower-class Roman citizens. Soon after, Marc Antony is elected one of the two consuls of Rome; chief officer, this was the highest legal administrative office in the Roman government. Therefore, Marc Antony was appointed into the government, making him a high-political figure and looked up upon from the lower-class citizens of Rome, this is how Marc Antony achieved being one of the people’s greatest leaders. Marc Antony formed and was a part of the second Triumvirate. The second Triumvirate was a three-man ruling group to rule Rome, formed to fill the void in government left by Julius Caesar s death. Octavian and Antonius agreed to a sharing of power. They, along with Lepidus, are designated by the Senate as a Triumvirate with dictatorial powers for five years. Octavian, Antonius and LepidusShow MoreRelatedMarc Antony And The Roman Empire1430 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.† These famous words were spoken by Marc Antony at Julius Caesar’s funeral as if to solidify that Caesar has passed and the Romans should look forward without nostalgia of gone-by emperors. Marc Antony was a leader in the change of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire that spanned thousands of miles in its prime. Born in January of 83 BC to the gens Antonia, which was a prominent family with both patricianRead MoreThe Character of Marc Antony in Julius Caesar773 Words   |  4 PagesShakespeare’s play Julius Caesar progresses, the character of Marc A ntony slowly reveals that he is not who he at first seems, a cunning manipulator rather than a blindly obedient lapdog. Antony, when he is introduced in Act 1 is running a traditional race on the Lupercal and is asked to touch Calpurnia by Caesar, who is referring to a superstition at the time that the touch of a runner in the race could cause a woman to be fertile. Antony responds to this request by simply saying â€Å"I shall rememberRead More The Ambitious Marc Antony in Julius Caesar996 Words   |  4 Pages The Ambitious Marc Antony in Julius Caesar nbsp; The tragic and untimely death of Julius Caesar, a condemned Roman tyrant, triggered William Shakespeares creativity. In his play Julius Caesar Shakespeare writes of the treacherous conspirators, Marcus Brutus and Caius Cassius, and their plans to assassinate their Roman leader, Julius Caesar. The story continues to explain how Caesars loyal friend, Marc Antony, helps avenge the brutal murder. After Antony receives soldiers to fightRead MoreOctavian and Marc Antony- The Duel of Words and Deeds1091 Words   |  4 PagesOctavian and Marc Antony- The Duel of Words and Deeds Following the Julius Caesars death at the hands of the Senate, Octavian and Marc Antony propelled themselves to the pinnacle of Roman power. First joining together during the Second Triumvirate, these men represented the true power players of Roman politics. As their alliance fractured, both Romans resorted to propaganda to gain an edge over the other. Through insulting the other and polishing their own image, both Antony and Octavian lookedRead MoreOctavian and Marc Antony- The Duel of Words and Deeds1805 Words   |  7 PagesDionysiac cult, which could be found in the East as well as in Italy. By linking oneself with Dionysus, Antony portrayed himself as a divine triumvir, looking to conquer the Orient. This political move was based on popular belief that Dionysus was the god of world conquest, and the blessings of Dionysus included civilization itself. To the people of the East, this connection provided justification why Antony should be revered and followed. Connecting himself with Dionysus also indicated royal power. SinceRead MoreThe Tragedy of Julius Caesar: Compare and Contrast Marc Antony, Cassius, and Brutus641 Words   |  3 PagesMarc Antony, Brutus, and Cassius are all critical characters in William Shakespeare’s famous play, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar. Due to their distinctive personalities and values, there is no trait that all of these characters share, although they do share some traits with one another. Firstly, Marc Antony and Cassius are manipulative in nature, while Brutus is not. Secondly, the root of Brutus and Cassius’ failure is their personality flaw, while Marc Antony proves strong in all the ways they proveRead MoreEssay on Marc Antony’s Funeral Oration1470 Words   |  6 PagesIn William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Mark Antony pleads with his â€Å"Friends, Romans (and) countrymen† to lend him their ears in an effort to exonerate Caesar from false charges laid against him. The three main co nspirators in Caesar’s murder, Brutus, Casca and Cassius portrayed Caesar as an ambitious tyrant to the Roman people. After Caesar was unjustly killed by his friends and comrades, the crowd was persuaded to believe that his death was necessary for the good of the republic. However, Antony’sRead MoreMarcus Brutus Vs Mark Antony s Funeral Speech Essay1135 Words   |  5 PagesDavis English II / 4th Block October 27, 2015 Marcus Brutus’ vs. Mark Antony’s Funeral Speech At the funeral of Julius Caesar two characters make speeches to the plebeian mob, Brutus and Marc Antony. Shakespeare shows us the personalities of the two orators and gives one an advantage over the other. Marc Antony has an advantage over Brutus because he speaks after Brutus and he has Caesar’s body. He also interrupts Brutus’ speech. He uses a range of rhetorical devices to manipulate the crowd. BothRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Julius Caesar 884 Words   |  4 PagesLater on after Caesar is murdered, Antony makes a speech that is full of irony. His speech tells of how Brutus says Caesar was an ambitious man, and that Brutus is an honorable man. Antony says, â€Å"Brutus says he was ambitious, and Brutus is an honorable man†¦ When the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept; ambition should be made of sterner stuff. Yet Brutus says he was ambitious, and Brutus is an honorable man† (Shakespeare Act III. ii. 95-103). Throughout his speech, Antony says Brutus is an honorable manRead MoreEssay on Cleopatra896 Words   |  4 Pagesbut a woman, believed that she could overthrow Rome, a huge world power. Her determination to renew the power of the Ptolemy line in Egypt enabled her to carry on with her plan. It was at this time that Cleopatra turned to Marc Antony, lieutenant to the late Caesar. Marc Antony was a very notable man with many military achievements. He was a respected authority in Rome and lived by Roman virtues. However, he also had a weakness for self-indulgence, and it was this that Cleopatra preyed upon. She immediately

Multicultural Education Issues And Perspectives

Introduction It is to be said that each student comes into a classroom with a particular set of unique behaviors and characteristics that will contribute to their academic success. The article Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives by McGee Banks states, Behavior is shaped by group norms ... the group equips individuals with the behavior patterns they need in order to adapt (2005,13). Students will develop a cultural identity through the social groups he/she is involved in through race, social class, cultural capital etc. Through this research we will try to find what particularly enhances the academic success of a student. Researchers from various studies have determined that students vary in learning performance and academic achievement. One factor that was determined to affect academic achievement was ethnicity. The question we will be trying to answer is: Is a Student’s Ethnicity the only factor to affect success or failure in school? We will look at research from articles that will provide data on a student’s academic performance determined through ethnicity and other factors. These other factors include family, cultural capital, economic status, teachers, etc. By looking at studies done by other researchers we will try understanding if a student’s ethnicity or if other factors may contribute to how successful a student is in the classroom. Literature Review (outline) Gloria Ladson-Billings. â€Å"stakes Is High: Educating New Century Students†. TheShow MoreRelatedAfrican American History And Education Of All Perspectives Essay1522 Words   |  7 Pagesprovide new materials, and perspectives, seamlessly with the knowledge to provide new levels of understanding from a more complete and accurate curriculum. According to Gorski, Stage 4 is where a teacher dedicates her- or himself to continuously expanding her or his knowledge base through the exploration of various sources from various perspectives, and sharing that knowledge with her or his students. Students learn to view events, concepts, and facts through various perspectives. When teaching AmericanRead More Multicultural Education: Piecing Together The Puzzle Essay913 Words   |  4 Pages Multicultural Education: Piecing Together the Puzzle nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;When a child opens his (or her) first puzzle and the pieces fall to the ground, it may seem very confusing. What are they to do with this pile of shapes in front of them? It often takes a parent to explain to them that all the different pieces fit together into one whole picture. Although every piece is different and unique, when they are all put into their place they form one whole picture. In the same way, teachersRead MoreImplementing Multicultural Education Essay1113 Words   |  5 Pagesis any form of change in education that is discussed, there are always those who disagree with that change. These critics deem that they are problems that exist with the concept of multicultural education. One argument against multicultural education is the fear that the lack of a clear definition will essentially confuse teachers which will affect the classroom. Professor Ryan, a professor of education at Lasalle University states that â€Å"the term multicultural education is a slogan. It means differentRead MoreThe History of Multicultural Education Essay1333 Words   |  6 Pagesespecially with the emergence of the Civil Rights Movement. Although the term â€Å"multicultural education† had not come into play yet, the idea that the U.S needed to reexamine their efforts of educating diverse groups was emerging. During this time inequality especially among m inority groups in comparison to the white dominant culture became a social issue (Banks 1999). Before the arrival of this reform multicultural education was displayed in the classroom as having minorities adapt to the predominantRead MoreIssues Of Poverty And Multicultural Education Essay1545 Words   |  7 PagesIssues of poverty relate to multicultural education because they are both obstacles to overcome as a teacher. In addition, these two might even come hand in hand. In some cases, a child might have to deal with both of these in his/her education, as well as their own learning. To teach a multicultural classroom, one much teach the diverse groups of students in a way that all cultures, ethnicities, and national heritages can learn. Incorporating poverty, including white poverty, into a multiculturalRead MoreMulticultural Approach Essay904 Words   |  4 PagesMulticultural Approach Doris McMillan ECE 405: Children Families in a Diverse Society August 29, 2010 Definitions of multicultural education vary. Some place emphasizes on the cultural characteristics of diverse groups, some emphasize social problems such as those associated with oppression, some place emphasize on political power, while others on the reallocation of economic resources. Some restrict their focus to people of color, while others include all major groups that are differentRead MoreMulticultural Education : A Truly Multicultural Mosaic1259 Words   |  6 PagesMulticultural education incorporates the idea that all students- regardless of their gender, social class, and ethnic, racial, or cultural characteristics- should have an equal opportunity to learn in school, (Banks Banks, 2010, p. 3.) For centuries our country, the United States of America, has been known as the â€Å"melting pot† in a sense that our world was moving towards multiculturalism. Some see the old metaphor, the â€Å"melting pot† fading away within the last decade and has grown in to a new term(s)Read MoreEssay about Dr. James Banks on Multicultural Education1050 Words   |  5 Pagessociety. Dr. James A. Banks defines the meaning of multicultural education and its potential impact on society when it is truly integrated into American classrooms. In his lecture, Democracy, Diversity and Social Justice: Education in a Global Age, Banks (2006) defines the five dimensions of multicultural education that serve as a guide to school reform when trying to implement multicultural education (Banks 2010). The goal of multicultural education is to encourage students to value their own culturesRead MoreMulticultural Education int the United States1665 Words   |  7 Pagesschool administrators to recognize the need to incorporate multicultural programs into their school environment including classroom settings, school wide activities, and curriculum as it becomes more evident that the benefits of teaching cultural diversity within the school setting will positively influence our communities, and ultimately the entire nation’s future. The purpose of this paper is to share the pros and cons of multicultural education in the classroom. Additionally, I will express my viewsRead More Multicultural Education Essay753 Words   |  4 PagesMulticultural Education What is multicultural education, and how is it relevant to science instruction? Over the past decade, educators have ignored this question and instead, they have focused on ways and methods of incorporating multiculturalism in the humanities. In the most recent assessment of Virginias Science Standards of Learning, Virginia received a grade of D, almost failing, in part because of the absence of a multicultural approach towards instruction. In research and discussions with

Civil Disobedience By Thoreau Free Essays

Philosophers, historians, authors, and politicians have spent centuries pondering the relationship between citizens and their government. It is a question that has as many considerations as there are forms of government and it is rarely answered satisfactorily. A relatively modern theorist, author Henry Thoreau, introduced an idea of man as an individual, rather than a subject, by thoroughly describing the way a citizen should live many of his works. We will write a custom essay sample on Civil Disobedience By Thoreau or any similar topic only for you Order Now He indirectly supplements the arguments he presents in his essay Civil Disobedience through a comprehensive selection of adages found in his other works. In articular, the phrases  «A simple and independent mind does not toil at the bidding of any prince » and  «To be awake is to be alive. I have never met a man who is quite awake » support many of the arguments in Civil Disobedience because they help to explicate the complex ideas Thoreau presents. The phrase  «A simple and independent mind does not toil at the bidding of any prince » regards the responsibilities of a man to his own consciousnessit is a duty that can not be revoked by any form of tyrant. Rather than hinting at a type of anarchy, this statement merely describes each mans duty to performing justice in all his actions. This does not refer to any  «mans duty to devote himself to the eradication of any, even the most enormous wrong; he may still properly have other concerns to engage him; but it is his duty, at least, to wash his hands of it, and, if he gives it no thought longer, not to give it practically his support » (681). The term  «simple » does not refer to an underdeveloped sense of morality; it describes a state of mind in which the concept of justice is so defined that contradictions cannot exist. To toil, as it is presented in this quotation, means to sacrifice ideals for the sake of conformity or law. The only real power the State holds over any individual is the promise of brute force; it  «never intentionally confronts a mans sense, intellectual or moral, but only his body, his senses » (687). Therefore, many acts the State requires will be unjustthey can and will force a man to slave for the sake of an ordeal he does not believe in. As Thoreau notes in Civil Disobedience,  «a wise man will only be useful as a man » (678). In essence, Thoreau believes that a man who toils at any ruling institutions bidding simply because it bid him to do so sacrifices his own facilities as a human being. He then becomes nothing more than a man put  «on a level with wood and earth and stones Command[ing] no more respect than men of straw, or a lump of dirt » (678). Another quotation that helps to explicate Thoreaus Civil Disobedience is  «To be awake is to be alive. I have never yet met a man who was quite awake. In this phrase, Thoreau uses the term  «awake » as an euphemism for being fully aware of ones concept of right and fully in control of ones moral and physical existence. Understandably, people who are consistently awake, in this sense of the word, are hard to find:  «There are ine hundred and ninety-nine patrons of virtue to one virtuous man » (680). Also, the fact that Thoreau has  «never met a man who was quite awake » implies that fully conscious individuals have difficulty existing in modern society. In fact, Thoreau believes that  «no man with a genius for legislation has appeared in America. They are rare in the history of the world » (692). Perhaps, by the word  «awake, » and its equation with  «alive, » Thoreau is also referring to the ability to fulfill his own mission:  «I came into this world, not chiefly to make this a good place to live in, but to live in it, be it good or bad » (683). Although this concept is not a particularly unique one, it is nearly impossible to fulfill completelybut to fulfill it partially is useless. As a living being, one must  «cast your whole vote, not a strip of paper merely, but your whole influence » (684). To truly be alive, one must be consciously satisfied with every passing moment. Through his conscientious support of every facet of his philosophy, Thoreau effectively proves his statements regarding citizenship and government. He remains consistent to nearly every idea he presents and therefore surrounds them with a seriousness that cannot be ignored. How to cite Civil Disobedience By Thoreau, Essay examples

Living Like Conner free essay sample

I noticed Conner the first day of class the summer of 2011 by his peculiar attitude towards the water. Most of the kids loved to get in, although there were always girls that thought it was too cold. Conner, with his goggles in hand, refused to get in the pool on the first day, and on the second, and on the third. He would rather sit on the diving blocks next to me and keep to himself, despite his mothers angry commands. Although it was sometimes inconvenient, I never got frustrated. I understood. I asked him each day if he wanted to get in and join the others. He would simply reply, â€Å"No, I don’t think so.† The other coaches had passed him from level to level because they didnt know what else to do with him. But I wasnt going to do that. I was going to take on the impossible task. We will write a custom essay sample on Living Like Conner or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I was going to get him in the water. I started thinking of ways to get him to come out of his shell and at least try to swim. I talked to his mother and we set up days where he could come to the pool when we didnt have practice. During the first afternoon, he was hesitant. But, after ten or fifteen minutes, he loosened up and started talking to me and expressing how he felt. This was exactly what I wanted. Being alone with him, he was completely different. He acted silly and more confident. We sat on the slimy, gray pool deck tiles and talk about school and his pets, sometimes for the whole hour. He even told me about his imaginary friend Goldfish Sam. And the best part was when he got in the water. He would only go in if I did, and he still refused to go in at the actual practices, but I was getting somewhere. During one of the last practices that summer, I gave all the kids an inner tube just for fun. I asked Conner if he wanted to get in and he whispered into my ear: â€Å"Will they think I look funny?† â€Å"No, Conner, they wont.† â€Å"Okaybut I’m scared. Will you go with me?† I nodded my head and smiled, thinking, is this actually happening? Is he really going to do it? Then, hand in hand we jumped together. I have never been prouder. That is the way I try to live my life. Although there are many things I am uncomfortable with, I try to push myself out of my comfort zone and take that big jump into uncertainty, just like Conner did.

Law School Personal Statement Examples

Law School Personal Statement Examples The personal statement is a written description of one’s interests, achievements, and other important info included as a part of an application for a place at a college or university. When sending applications to different schools and colleges the chances are high you’ll also have to submit a personal statement. Law school isn’t an exception. Before you get all nervous and frustrated, you should bear in mind that writing personal statements isn’t the most difficult task in the world. Throughout this post, I’m going to show you some law school personal statement examples and provide a few tips that will help you compose your statement easily. Or you can work as proofreader Stuck on Your Personal Statement? Check out these example personal statement. Dos and don’ts Before you start working on your law grad school personal statement, you have to know what is okay to do and things to avoid. Knowing dos and don’ts helps you shape the personal statement and avoid common mistakes that students usually make when submitting their applications. DO: Always be yourself. Instead of adding to your personal statement things you think they want to hear, tell the admission board the truth about yourself. Be you! Ask someone to edit and proofread the personal statement for you, to make sure you don’t overlook some common mistakes Edit and proofread the statement as soon as you finish writing your law school personal statement Feel free to talk about personal statement topics with the pre-school advisor or some other individual who’s familiar with the process Focus on the first paragraph of the personal statement. Just like with â€Å"regular† essays, the first paragraph has to be intriguing and interesting enough to catch reader’s attention and make him/her want to keep reading the paper Instead of choosing a broad topic and writing generalities, opt for a narrow topic where you can add specific details. The best thing to do is to focus on a specific experience and the influence it had on you Instead of dragging the personal statement to make it appear larger, you should keep it brief and simple. Remember, quality always beats quantity. Generally, personal statements should take 2-3 double-spaced pages Make sure the personal statement is interesting and energetic. You don’t want the admission board to yawn while reading it. Tell the story, keep the audience engaged Strive to consider the audience. For instance, personal statement law school is usually evaluated by admission board consisting of professors, admission professionals, third-year law students. All these people have been where you are now, you have to write the statement in a manner that will showcase your individuality but impress them at the same time. Your goal is to come across as an interesting classmate, attentive student, and an accomplished individual (or as a person who’s motivated to achieve great things) Try enriching personal statement with info from your background, any detail that sets you apart from other students e.g. family, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic factor Write in active voice DON’T Play a role of a judge or lawyer when you’re writing a personal statement Use jargon or other legal concepts. Remember, you want to enroll into the law school and your admission will be reviewed by individuals who specialize in law. When you use jargon or legal concepts there is always the risk of misusing them Write your entire life story and restate information you’ve already written in the resume. After all, your personal statement should tell the story why you want to study law Use clichà © phrases, expressions, and stories about the mission to save the world etc. Be honest about your experiences and how you perceive them to emphasize your individuality Turn the personal statement as a sort of explanation for weak grades and some other discrepancies in the application. All potential issues should be addressed in an addendum. On the other hand, your personal statement should focus on the positives, rather than negatives Advocate a controversial opinion or idea before thinking it through. Yes, lawyers are used to all sorts of ideas and topics, but it doesn’t mean you should promote some radical ideas in content whose purpose is to explain why you want to be a law student. Plus, there’s always the risk of appearing close-minded How to write a personal statement? Every educational institution usually releases criteria and requirements along with personal statement prompts to help students understand what they’re looking for. Before you get to see the examples of law school personal statements, I’m going to give you some useful tips that will make it easier for you to start working on your admission. At this point, you’re probably wondering how to start a personal statement and these tips will help you write a killer opening paragraph: Avoid starting the personal statement with long, complicated sentences Be enthusiastic and make sure it shows in the very opening paragraph of the personal statement Consider it as the chance to introduce yourself Depict your interest in the course, the admission board wants to know just how badly you want to study there Don’t beat around the bush, get to the point quickly Don’t just say you’re interested in law, explain WHY Engage the admission board with something relevant, interesting, and specific Start the personal statement with a short sentence which perfectly captures the main reason you’re interested in studying law Write what comes naturally When it comes to the personal statement format, students are usually asked to follow the format that the educational institution provides. Some students divide the personal statement into smaller subheadings while others simply organize the text into paragraphs. In this case, every paragraph develops and discusses one idea or, in this case, one reason why you want to study there. As you can see, writing a personal statement isn’t such a difficult task, but there are numerous things to consider when composing the content. To make things even easier for you, here is the rundown of info to include into your personal statement: Can you demonstrate transferable skills like leadership, problem-solving, teamwork, time management, organizational and listening skills? If so, include them in your personal statement Demonstrate critical thinking Describe what you’ve done outside of school and classroom Describe your long-term career plan Explain reasons you want to study the course Explain what makes you the ideal student for the course Reflect on experiences and explain what you’ve learned from them and how they’re relevant to your course Examples Now that you know more about these statements and how to write them on your own, these personal statement examples can help you stay on the right track. Below, you can see the collection of personal statement paragraphs that will inspire you: Law is the cornerstone of the society, the engine that makes the world we live in work. Sometimes the engine functions perfectly, but in other instances, it experiences different problems. When law suffers, the entire society suffers too. In my humble opinion, the law is almost like a living organism primarily because it always changes and adapts to different circumstances in the society. The desire to learn more about the way this world functions and to build a career in helping this living organism grow and stay alive inspired me to study law. I was determined to learn the role of a solicitor after visiting the magistrate’s court and sitting in the public gallery. My visit to the public gallery and the court had the purpose to improve my knowledge about the process. Monitoring the solicitors and the way they approached the case and their clients made me realize it is essential to pay attention to detail and treat the client with respect. For solicitors, it is a must to stay non-judgmental and mature regardless of the case. Solicitors have the tremendous opportunity to help change their clients’ lives, they are making an impact, a career I want to have as well. The primary reason why I have chosen to study law is that it will enable me to study Criminal and Human Rights Law in a greater depth. The course comes with a theoretical and practical basis which can help expand my knowledge and understand how the law affects the society. My decision to study Law stems from an appreciation I had for the subject originating in my fathers previous and current businesses. My role there revolved around doing secretarial work. Thanks to this role, I gained a much-needed insight into how the law is imposed in a business setting. At the same time, I started wondering about other influences that law has. How does law impact our world? That is the question I constantly ask myself but it will be possible to answer it only when I study and learn more about law and all its impacts on other aspects of life both private and social. I engage in a wide array of extracurricular activities to complement my academic interests. For instance, I am involved in debating society of my school. Being a member of this team was a great learning experience because it helped me develop my skills, improve writing, and develop critical thinking. Furthermore, I am also involved in a reward experience like the production of the school newspaper. Hobbies are important for every individual, regardless of the job, race, ethnicity, they help us evolve as human beings. Bottom line Writing a law school personal statement can be quite frustrating when you don’t know what to do, especially if you’ve never had to write a personal statement before. It all comes down to making the content happy, optimistic, and non-judgmental. Remember, your personal statement should be a perfect reflection of you as you, not someone else.So? if you need personal statement examples, you can use our site!

Predjudice and Liberty

Predjudice and Liberty Prejudice and LibertyThroughout Canadian history there have been some bleak circumstances in which harm has been done, whether physical or emotional, unto certain habitants based on inequitable laws within the constitution. In particular, the "white women's labour laws" and Bill C-36 have persuaded prejudices to occur within communities. These predispositions have been based primarily on ethnic backgrounds and to some extent on gender. The cause of such inequity can generally be found in the results of acts of war or terrorism. As a result unjustified persecution could ensue.The white women's labour laws were put in place to prohibit the hiring of white women in restaurants, laundries or any other Oriental owned business. The law was designed to support public morality by protecting white women from the advances of chinamen. In short, the law excludes Asian males from success within the community and labels them as a distinct group of distorted offenders.Countries in which Islamist t errorist attacks have...The first victim of the law was Quong Wing, a Chinese-Canadian restaurant owner in Moose Jaw. He was charged with employing three white women as waitresses. The defense in this case argued that the term "Chinese" was to broad to know to whom exactly it applied. Loosing his case without much of a chance, Quong Wing appealed. He now argued that the law should not apply to a Canadian citizen, as he is, or that the provincial government of Saskatchewan should have the power to make laws that apply only to immigrants. Faced with another loss, he appealed to the Supreme Court. Four out of Five judges argued that the law should stand, believing that Quong Wing cannot be a Canadian because he is still from China, and that the law applies to him because of his Chinese origin. By reviewing such a case it is obvious...

Bloog 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bloog 5 - Essay Example Moreover, my racial and cultural identity has made me different from many Americans (Nguyen 122). As a person, I have different values from many of the Americans who are my classmates. Although there has been a measure of violence and discrimination targeted towards Asian Americans, I have not experienced any extreme case of the racial discrimination. I have also had the opportunity to interact with other Asian Americans, a factor that has made me experience a home away from home. Many Asian Americans believe that hard work is essential if anyone wants to be successful. The above has proven to be a positive stereotype in my stay in the United States of America. Many people are likely to give me opportunities because they have the conviction that I will exhibit hard work and dedication. Like many other Asian Americans, I am doing my best to make my life better because the United States offer more opportunities (123). For example, I am benefiting from an international curriculum a factor that presents a brighter future for me. Despite the stereotypes associated with my race, I am grateful for the opportunity of being in the United States. Nguyen, DQ. "Unraveling The "Model Minority" Stereotype: Listening To Asian American Youth, 2Nd Edition." Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 17.1 (n.d.): 122-123. Social Sciences Citation Index. Web. 26 June

U03d1 Theory of Constraints Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

U03d1 Theory of Constraints - Essay Example The basic theory is that the lesser the barriers to the performance, there is higher chances of realizing the full potential. This theory helps provide a complete focus on five main aspects which include â€Å"identity constraints, exploit constraints, subordinate others, elevate constraints and repeat cycle† (Anderson, 2005). The theory of constraints is based on five steps. This is clear from the diagram below. Theory of Constraints in some ways is similar to lean thinking however along with the focus on the reduction of wastes, and increase in the process flow, the theory also focuses on throughput. However there is little or no focus on the emphasis of making money by selling products and services or also simply cutting costs (Jacob, Bergland, & Cox, 2009). In terms of the example of the correlation between the two selected processes, it is best to choose the internal process and the structural management process with the focus on quality service. Considering the health care organization, the main constraints and restrictions are mainly recognized by the stakeholders of the organization along with the supervision of the administration. Together they work towards the determination of the offered resolutions and also work towards the response and removal of or adding on to the necessities of the organization to have an overall effective and cost efficient process. The health care industry can overall be improved to a great extent using the Theory of Constraints and the overall management as well as the staff credentials can be improved based on the needs of the organization (Goldratt, 1999). The overall organization can be improved to a great extent by increasing the operational flow, improving the communication and also working on the s taff awareness and cohesive delegation of the tasks. Together the overall processes can be improved and the Theory of Constraints’ five step program

History and function of legal services of america Research Paper

History and function of legal services of america - Research Paper Example This paper is in the view that inequities in the delivery of U.S. legal assistance ought to be dealt with. It is therefore recommended that a young generation of advocates for legal assistance be promoted plus the establishment of a mission of incorporating legal assistance into the promotion of human rights campaign. History and Function of Legal Services of America Legal service refers to the help or free service in the law field. In its different decisions, the Supreme Court has declared flatly that legal aid is a responsibility of a welfare state and should not at any time be viewed as a charity. From as early as the late 1800s and all through the early 20th century years, the American legal profession conveyed its dedication to the idea of free legal aid for the poor. This would be in form of bar association, legal aid committees and legal aid societies. Since 1964, the government of the United States has backed its dedication to equal justice under the law through offering fede ral financing for civil legal assistance to individuals with low-income (Auerbach, 1977). ... This was the first agency that offered legal aid to people no matter their sex, race or nationality (Auerbach, 1977). Other municipalities also followed in this direction and most major cities had new legal aid offices in the first decades of the twentieth century. Legal Services Corporation (LSC) A corporation controlled by a nonpartisan, independent Board was created by the LSC Act. It was appointed by the President and affirmed by the Senate. Of the eleven members, there were no more than six members belonging to the same political party. Attorneys had to make a majority of the board and it was to be inclusive of persons who would actually be qualified for legal services. Additionally, the board was to in general represent the organized bar, lawyers offering legal aid to the poor and the public at large. The corporation was entitled to obtain federal financing and make grants to local legal services programs that were independent (Subrin & Woo, 2008). President Gerald Ford appoint ed the first LSC Board which was confirmed in mid-1975. The decisions made by the board on the major policy issues expressed a desire to make sure that the individuals who were poor had legal representation that was effective and an appreciation of the merits that the existing delivery system had. Most of the effort by the corporation initially went into acquiring more financing from Congress in order to expand the reach of the legal services program. In 1977, without substantial argument, the Corporation was reauthorized for three more years. There was clarification as well as lifting of some restrictions. LSC started focusing on making the local programs more effective through the improvement of the evaluation and monitoring systems. By 1981, the LSC was

US Justice Departments Case Against Microsoft

US Justice Departments Case Against Microsoft Explain how economic theories and evidence can help in understanding the US Justice Departments recent case against Microsoft, and in Microsofts defense against the accusations. The continuing legal case against Microsoft began initially in September 1996 when the Department of Justice claimed that Microsoft forced computer makers to take Internet Explorer. By January 1997, Microsoft controlled 85% of the operating systems market. By August 1997 Microsoft and Apple Computers had agreed to a $250 million collaboration over various products and programs including most definitively making Internet Explorer bundled with Apple computers as its default browser. Within the next two months the Department of Justice created a suit claiming that Microsoft violated its 1995 consent decree, disallowing Windows operating system to be tied to any other products. Thus beginning a four year roller coaster of trial and appeals leading to presumed wins and losses for both sides, concluding with a November 1, 2002 settlement, finally approved on June 30, 2004 in a U.S. appeals court, citing it is in the public’s interests. Throughout this case in many courtrooms and in front of numerous trial lawyers and judges a number of economic theories have been introduced and cited in the rulings for and against Microsoft. Beginning in December 1997 when Department of Justice Thomas Penfield Jackson, whom later was targeted as bias against Microsoft, stopped Microsoft from requiring the distribution of Internet Explorer with Windows 95 claiming theories of market â€Å"lock-in†, a spoke in the wheel of â€Å"path dependence†. Judge Jackson disputed that Microsoft Windows operating system owes the bulk of its market success to the high number of applications written for it. Also claiming â€Å"lock-in† theory in that Microsoft was barring applicants to enter the market despite the fact that consumer and product tests and reviews showed Windows continuously beating out IBM’s OS 2, which ironically was compatible with Windows and yes came with a browser and had numerous applications writt en for it. Jackson pushed to label Microsoft as going against the Sherman anti-trust laws by reducing Netscape’s market share to create a monopoly over the operating system markets claiming a viable case of â€Å"path dependence.† Path dependency is an argument that presumes that technology markets involve a danger of being â€Å"locked-in† to an inferior technology when subject to changes in the network as the better product is not always the winner and in fact winning and losing is highly based on sheer luck and past historical events. Once â€Å"locked-in† there is little opportunity to switch to the superior of the products as the costs of changing are made very high to protect the monopolistic company. There are many opponents to the theory of â€Å"path dependence† created by Brian W. Arthur. The major point of discrepancy is that Windows dominance throughout the operating system market was created by its economic efficiency and its position can be quickly eliminated with the introduction of system of better quality. Claims also include the caution that if â€Å"lock-in† theories are generally accepted the number of suits filed will increase drastically as many markets are subject to market effects and high seller concentration. This ultimately can be detrimental to the entire marketplace, damaging industry growth creating unsure investors with the inability to seek refuge within productivity effects on a scale base. According to the U.S. courts, Microsoft was establishing â€Å"barriers to entry† and therefore in need of priority anti-trust intervention. The fear being that regardless if a new entry to the market had a superior product to the Microsoft operating system, Microsoft would still ultimately dominate the marketplace as the costs to switch would be tremendous, lying entirely in the hands of the consumer, as all of Windows and each of its compatible applications would be rendered useless, thus creating a â€Å"lock-in† for Microsoft despite its inefficient capabilities. The example disputed throughout numerous debates was that of Macintosh would have been the better solution, however Linux despite being superior would be unable to overcome its â€Å"lock-in† position. The concluding solution: Judge Jackson rules on June 7, 2000, ordering Microsoft to break up and form two separate companies, one producing Windows operating system and the other to handle software app lications, including a barring from uniting for up to ten years. Again opponents to the â€Å"path dependence† claim that Microsoft’s dominance was in fact due to its superior products and a break up of the company would create a detrimental effect to welfare of technology, hampering innovation for years ahead. Bill Gates stated the break up would set Microsoft back some ten years. Also that the anti-trust laws cannot hold the same conditioning they did one hundred years ago over markets such as soy bean production as today’s high-tech markets are subject to rapid innovation and change that promotes aggressive behavior within the industry to stay ahead. This was the basis for the June 14, 2000 appeal by Microsoft over the District Court’s judgment. The appeals court ruled in favor of resisting Microsoft’s need to split into two companies but sided with the District Court in that Microsoft continually abused its monopoly standing within the software business. The major point in fact is that both courts presumably agreed that Microsoft’s success was largely attributed to luck and the â€Å"lock-in† effect coupled with switching costs stifling consumers, rather than pointing to its efficiency contributing to its success. The contradiction that was introduced by the appeals courts against the â€Å"lock-in† theory is that under the â€Å"lock-in† theory only a monopolistic break up could disrupt the network effect cycle and restore the deteriorated competition as cited by the district court. But if this â€Å"lock-in† theory were to hold strong then the appeals court decision to not separate Microsoft would ultimately contribute to its dominance. According to the Justice Department’s economic experts, the break up of Microsoft would create higher prices to accommodate both of the companies that would be trying to maximize profits by creating products that are complementary instead of the current production of a single product. In a surprise turn of events the ruling was turned in favor of Microsoft, claiming, as stated earlier, Jackson’s previous statements to journalists were sufficient evidence of his bias against Microsoft. The Supreme Court, on August 7, 2001, reversed the ruling that Microsoft was an illegal monopoly. On September 6, 2001 the Department of Justice states that it no longer seeks to pursue either the break up of Microsoft or the bundling issue at the center of the case. The next month followed with an approved settlement between the Department of Justice and Microsoft over anti-trust charges, however nine states still sought stricter infractions against Microsoft, seeking to have Internet Explorer placed within the public domain, along with other commitments including the ability of computer makers to remove some Windows features. Following lawsuits have followed, including suits by AOL Time Warner and Sun Microsystems, Inc., both settled through monetary resolve. Finally, on Jun e 30, 2004, the U.S. appeals court approved Microsoft’s settlement with the Justice Department, saying it is in the public’s interest. As the above stated is the path Microsoft has traveled to continue it process of continuing software market innovation, it is necessary to look at what allowed many companies and the justice system to confront and challenge Microsoft’s work ethic and productivity. To speak from the side of Microsoft, Microsoft dominates in software markets where reviews and evaluations show they have the best products and do not in markets where other products are superior. Also, under monopolistic practices traditional views of economics suggest that prices are maximized to maximize profits, however within all the markets where Microsoft has a substantial holding prices have fallen dramatically. Also, the â€Å"lock-in† theory stresses that technology industries get stuck with low quality products, but history shows that in high-tech markets, superior products eliminate inferior ones, as was the case with the superior Excel over Lotus 1-2-3 and Microsoft Word over the inferior WordPerf ect. Reviews are the main contributor to the success of these products. Reviews gave landslide wins to both Excel and Word, where Microsoft Money was the inferior product to Quicken it failed. According to the Justice system these products carried â€Å"path dependence† that â€Å"locked-in† the inferior products (from which of these products the statement is directed is unclear) and therefore â€Å"locked-out† innovative newcomers. Examples of â€Å"lock-in† are products that become highly publicly used such as the telephone or VCR become the norm and consumers will relinquish from trying others products that vary from the standard. The antagonist to this is that the high-tech market changes so rapidly that competitive advantages have a short lifespan. Also, that consumers are able to handle the concept that if everyone knew another product was better and more efficient would not someone find a way to cut the costs to switch to the superior product. Evid ence clearly suggests that yes a single product leading to increasing returns for the company often dominates markets such as software markets, however its replacement often happens at a record speed when a product comes along that is clearly superior. Think of game play consoles; Nintendo GameCube was almost placed into extinction with the introduction of Playstation 2 and Microsoft Xbox, whose prominence will not be countered with the introduction of Xbox 360 and soon Playstation 3. To counter the anti -trust issue against Microsoft, economists have argued that Microsoft has neither raised its prices nor restricted the output of its products, both traditional elements within a monopoly. Microsoft, on the other hand, offers good quality products at prices that are attractive to consumers and this has lead to Microsoft’s large market share. The problem that lingers is why has a company that has made good products at good prices been placed under such large scrutiny. Three ideals that have allowed firms to be exposed are arbitrary law, perfect competition, and economic versus political power. The antitrust laws rely heavily on arbitrary language that reflects the arbitrary rulings within perfect competition. Consider pricing, if one sets its prices above it competitors it can be seen as trying to monopolize, setting prices below can reflect unfair competition or restraining trade and if prices are similar to that of competitors the charge can be a scheme to fix prices. Therefore regardless of any price you set you are in violation of the anti-trust laws. Who is prosecuted is ultimately up to the prosecutors and whom they see as firms that hold large market share or whom is enjoying large profits. Also under the anti-trust laws, the â€Å"essential services† doctrine states that ‘a product or service that becomes widely used and relied upon loses it private character and effectively becomes private property, to be shared with rivals and the government.’ Presumably the Windows operating system became a red mark under this doctrine. The unfortunate factor is that firms are penalized for making great products that are successful. Also, consider the charge that Microsoft held a monopolizing market share. This definition is subjective to the prosecutor as well. Microsoft holds approximately 5% of the worldwide market share, but has 50% of the PC software market and 80% of the software for Intel based PCs. What is the determining factor to decide where a Monopoly is created? The result is that Microsoft has been forced to self-regulate to avoid constant prosecution, and this is the path to slower innovation. Perfect competition is the ideal theory not on how competition actually works but instead on how it should work. Ideally every market should be saturated with a great number of firms and impending newcomers to the market, with each firm holding a small share of the market. Entrance into the market should be cost-free and no firm can change its pricing to change its market share and products should be indistinguishable. Under such profits are rendered non-existent as any profit would be considered an imperfect market and after covering costs the ideal situation is a firm showing a loss. This is in theory but in reality there is no industry that is like this as all of the entrants would decease due to a lack of the ability to survive. This ideal of perfect competition was one of the theories used to combat Microsoft. The concept of economic power versus political power is the ideal that many suits brought up as antitrust suits are contrived as revengeful plot to gain back market share that has been taken from the initiating party. Instead of creating products that are more efficient and more able to compete. The difference between economic and political power is that economic power is the power to create and produce using intellectual capability to achieve no successes, trading voluntarily to the advantage of all parties. While political power is power used to force and punish, involving physical aggrandizement used to overpower other parties. Microsoft is a leading cooperative producer flaunting only economic power. The powers that restrain them are not consumers, for which profit from Microsoft creating economical and efficient products, but instead the rivals bring suit not in the interest of the overall market but only in fear of losing even more share of the market. Traditional economic theory promotes that economic efficiency is derived from price and quality, which determine the outcome within the market. Though the court doesn’t mention the theory of path dependence explicitly, the evidence provided by the plaintiffs strictly resembles the elements enlisted under the Arthur theory. ‘The argument is that a positive feedback loop due to static economies of scale and demand-side network effects led to the so-called intractable ‘chicken-and-egg’ problem, which caused a ‘Microsoft-winner-take-all’ and a ‘Mac-OS/2-Linux-loser-gets-nothing’ solution. Microsoft is also blamed for being an inferior lock-in standard today due to positive feedback. There is no statement claiming that Microsoft gained its dominant market position simply by chance and was able to out do Apple in the battle for the predominance in the OS market in the mid 1980s. There’s also no explicit statement that Microsoft would have been an inferior technology inspired by early luck in comparison with its early competitors in the mid 1980s. Concerning the early technology selection problem during the standard battle between Microsoft and Apple, there’s no link with ARTHUR’s theory within the court’s argumentation. As a result, Microsoft is not explicitly blamed for having been an inferior solution in the past. But Microsoft is implicitly blamed for being an inferior lock-in standard today who gained its dominant market position in the past by positive feedback and whose predominance is protected by the applications barrier to entry. The court claims that Apple Macintosh, OS/2 and Linux haven’t been able to overcome the applications barrier to entry which implies that these alternative OSs are thought to be at least of the same or even of better quality than Windows because no competitor with worse quality could compete effectively with the incumbent. In this respe ct, the court argues completely according to ARTHUR’s theory that there’s almost no possibility to ‘unlock’ the Microsoft monopoly. The judge doesn’t mention explicitly the term ‘inferior lock-in monopoly’ but also demonstrates that Microsoft isn’t believed to survive due to superior product quality but simply by anti-competitive means, which protect and enhance the applications barrier to entry.’ (1a.) Fortunately, for the future innovations within the software market and the constant advance, Microsoft is free to create new efficient products at reasonable products for the future to come. That arbitrary economic theory almost crushed this opportunity and stalemated the innovation process speaks volumes about the need to produce legislation that can be accurately held accountable to guide all firms. Whether there need be strict rules to account for different markets and product types to discern between never changing marketplaces to industries that turnover a week at a time is left unclear. Regardless, Microsoft is not evil for creating a profit on an increasing returns agenda, that is what is available in markets that hold market share and volume advantages. References: JACKSON (1999), U.S. Department of Justice, Antitrust-Division, p. 6. Ohios sad legacy of antitrust: John Sherman to Betty Montgomery By James A. Damaskweb, July 1998 Law and Economics of Microsoft vs. U.S. Department of Justice: New Paradigm for Antitrust in Network Markets or Inefficient Lock-In of Antitrust Policy? By Marc-Peter Radke Stuttgart-Hohenheim ISSN 1618-5358, 2001 www.findlaw.com Wired magazine issue 3.10: The More you Sell, the More you Sell. Law and Economics of Microsoft vs. U.S. Department of Justice New Paradigm for Antitrust in Network Markets or Inefficient Lock-In of Antitrust Policy? By Marc-Peter Radke, Nov. 2001 www.cnn.com

Shadows of War :: Articles Short Stories Papers

Shadows of War Something had gone wrong. Terribly wrong. â€Å"How could this have happened?!† the leader demanded. â€Å"You told me it was safe! You said I wouldn’t become involved!† â€Å"You’re not involved--there’s nothing that connects you to the operation,† Mitchell said. â€Å"As far as everyone else is concerned, I’m in charge.† The leader was not pleased. The operation had been planned for months, every detail accounted for, every contingency considered--save one. A simple thing like a speeding ticket had screwed everything up. The team had been stopped by the Syracuse police. Something had possessed them to search that car and they had found everything--the guns, the armor, the grenades. Because of the vice president’s visit, federal officials had quickly been notified. The President’s Guard had been famous for its interrogation techniques ever since their creation by President McClellan. It didn’t take long for a member of the team to crack and reveal the entire plot. It didn’t take long for the security to tighten. Now, getting close to the vice president would be impossible. And if it was ever connected to the leader, his career would be over. While many in his country agreed with him, the government would care little for that. There was a larger good at stake, though. He had a duty to his people, even if his government disagreed. Mitchell was the only connection between him and the operation. It wouldn’t be long until Mitchell became a wanted man and he might--just might--get linked to him. â€Å"We have to remain calm,† Mitchell said. â€Å"We don’t know that my name will come up. They have to get to Luken first and he’s already at a safehouse.† The man was a fool. The President’s Guard was a group of the most determined and talented men in the nation. It wouldn’t take them long to figure everything out. The only way to stop the chain was to break it. â€Å"Fine, fine,† the leader said. â€Å"Get out of here. Get yourself to the safehouse. Stay there and wait for my instructions.† The leader walked to the window and watched as Mitchell got in his car and drove away. He watched as Mitchell’s car became nothing more than a small dot of light.

“Should Fast Food Chains Be to Blame for Childhood Obesity”

â€Å"Should fast food chains be to blame for childhood obesity? † As defined by dictionary. com obesity is the condition of being obese; increased body weight caused by excessive accumulation of fat. Obesity is determined by the level of BMI (body mass index). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, BMI is calculated from a child’s weight and height, and is compared to a chart that tells you what is along the normal ranges.As you can see, children do not just wake up one day and find themselves overweight, there has to be some kind of influence that is making them that way, whether it be the foods they eat at home, or what they eat while with friends. This is not a matter that should be taken lightly. Who should be blamed? Some people believe the parents are to blame because they should provide their children with healthier meal choices at all times. Others believe the influence fast food companies have through the media and advertising is too grea t and children would rather have a happy meal that comes with a toy than have a healthy cooked meal from home.The way of living has changed drastically from the 1970s to the present. Back in the 1970s mothers were more likely to be homemakers and had the time to dedicate to homemade meals three times a day. Nowadays, women are more likely to take part in careers and therefore live more hectic lifestyles. People are busier than ever and most of the time it is much easier to drive by a fast food restaurant and pick up dinner than to slave in the kitchen after a long day at work. â€Å"Fewer family meals are eaten together now (less than 5 a week of 21 meals) than in the years past† (King, 28).The fast food business has boomed in the recent years due to this and they tend to advertise mostly to kids using colorful advertisements with their favorite cartoon characters and reel them in by providing a toy along with a processed hamburger and greasy French fries. Being an obese chil d can have many effects on their health, both physical and emotional health are impacted greatly by being overweight. Some children are never taught proper ways to cope with their emotions and eating is what they turn to make them feel better when nothing else is going right.Obese children tend to suffer from low self-esteem and may develop eating disorders in their quest to become thin. â€Å"Obese adolescents are more prone to emotional and behavior problems and also more likely to develop psychopathologies during both adolescence and adulthood† (Willette, 565). Overweight children are at risk for more diseases than children within their normal weight. â€Å"Adult diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, are being diagnosed in 8-and 9-year-old children† (King, 28).Some parents rely on television and video games to keep their children entertained after a long day because they do not have time to take the children outside to play. †Health concerns such as undernutritio n, lack of physical activity and increased incidence of chronic diseases are more common in low-income and minority youth† (King, 28). Everywhere we turn we are bombarded by advertisements for some type of fast food restaurant. Billboards, television commercials, radio ads, and print are just some of the media used to get the message to people to come out to their restaurants, and use catchy slogans with animated characters.It is no secret these ads are mostly advertising to children and teenagers. In 2002, it was estimated that annual sales of food and beverages to young consumers exceeded $27 billion. Advertisers have recognized that young consumers are a valuable market and have begun to advertise directly to them. Food and beverage advertisers collectively spend$10 billion to $20 billion annually to reach children and youth, and more than $1 billion of that is spent on direct media advertising to children (Willette, 565). Children are more likely to be influenced by these advertisements, especially when it involves something they think is cool.These advertisements are mostly found on channels such as nickelodeon or Disney channel. It is very hard because there is no way to avoid these advertisements unless you move yourself and your children to a cave. Parents have an important effect on their children’s development because they are the ones who raise their children from day one. If a child is raised eating healthy foods they are more likely to keep making those choices as they grow older and pass those habits on to their children. Bad eating habits can be passed on as well.Some parents simply don’t know how to make healthy eating choices themselves, and it affects them and their children around the waistline. Parents should lead by example; they should not only encourage their children to eat healthy, but also do the same themselves. So why are parents blaming fast food chains for their children obesity? Well, because no one wants to h old themselves responsible and it is always much easier to point the finger at someone else. No parent wants to be seen as the reason for making their child overweight and want some type of reassurance that their parenting efforts ave not all been ineffective. Parents also are the ones that pay for the fast food and provide it for their children, so it can’t fully be the fast food companies fault, right? Children are going to be children and they are going to always want what is not good for them, but the parents have some control over what they choose to feed their child, and it should be done even if it requires them to spend more time in the home. In conclusion, the media is always going to have a big impact on the lives of everyone especially children. Childhood obesity is a health epidemic affecting many children in this country today.Parents are the ones who give guidance and should work hard to teach their children healthy eating habits. Fast food companies use adverti sing and many other things to attract children; but at the end of the day, companies need to make money. So the blame game parents are using needs to stop. Fast food is not going anywhere and the parents should be the ones being held responsible for their children not fast food companies who have no relation to these children.Works cited â€Å"Kaiser Family Foundation Releases Report on Role of Media In Childhood Obesity. † Pediatric Nursing 30. (2004): 165 Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 18 Apr. 2010. Willette, Amanda L. â€Å"Where Have All the Parents Gone? Do Efforts to Regulate Food Advertising To Curb Childhood Obesity Pass Constitutional Muster?. † Journal of Legal Medicine 28. 4 (2007): 561-577. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 18 Apr. 2010. King, Nancy, and Dayle Hayes. â€Å"Shame, Blame and the ‘War on Childhood Obesity’: Confronting the Real Problems, Identifying the Positive Solutions. † Healthy Weight Journal 17. 2 (2003): 2 8. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 18 Apr. 2010.

Many times throughout history

Many times throughout history, specific events occur that explain why the existence of Native Americans are necessary for the Spanish and English colonists to survive. The Native Americans were like parents to the Spanish and English colonists. As a newborn baby is introduced to the new world, alike, the Spanish and English were introduced to a New World in which the Natives were already a part of. Their inhabitance of the land dates back to many thousands of years ago where they inhabited all regions of the Americas. When the Europeans arrived the Natives gave the colonists knowledge about the land. At times the Natives cared for them and supplied them with food and various other things. They also provided work for the colonists whether the Natives were slaves, servants or allied forces. Economically, the Natives were needed very much for anything the colonists would export to Europe. Throughout history, the colonists dependency on the Natives was clearly shown and the how ! the colonists exploited the Natives in every possible way was also clear. What the colonists needed most from the Natives was their knowledge of the land. Because the Natives lived in the Americas for thousands of years, they are familiar with the area and they know how to work with it. For example, when Cortez landed on the Mexican shores on 1519, he used the Aztecs for their gold. When he found out where the Aztecs were getting their gold from, he simply destroyed them after he used them for their knowledge. Spanish colonists also had to learn a lot from the Pima, Pueblo and Papagos to be able to continue their farming in the very dry Southwest. Another tribes knowledge the colonists needed for survival was the Hohokam. The Hohokam built and maintained the first irrigation system in America, channeling river water many miles to desert fields of maize, beans, squash, tobacco, and cotton. The Hohokams knowledge of...

Copyright Privacy in China essays

Copyright Privacy in China essays Copyright privacy pirating in China is just like the wild grasses in our backyards. We claim everyday to eliminate them, while they win the game at last all the time. Why do these wild grasses, which are heavily threatening the development of China ¡Ã‚ ¯s IT industry, have such an  ¡Ã‚ °invincible ¡ growing? I think it is China ¡Ã‚ ¯s government who should be responsible for that rich ground, and the situation will remain unchanged until more severe actions are taken. Two kinds of people directly result in the prosperity of copyright pirating. One is the supplier, including the illegal producer and some retailer, the other is the user, who eventually buys those pirate materials. Both of them can gain considerable profits by devoting to the illegal deal. It is completely a win-win situation except for the risk of being caught by the government. Then let ¡Ã‚ ¯s see the result, or something called punishment, of being caught due to copyright pirating. The suppliers may pay some penalties or be sent to prison for a couple of months, however, comparing to the great gains they may have, counting the low frequency and efficiency of the government ¡Ã‚ ¯s action, the job of copyright pirating in China is much safer than investing in the stock market. The other related group, end users, even didn ¡Ã‚ ¯t have to pay anything for their illegal actions some years ago. All the influence the government exerts on the violators is too tiny to force them to stop their  ¡Ã‚ °job ¡ on hand and turn to make a tradeoff. Although the government has realized their urgent central role in the protection of copyright privacy, their actions and the punishments are still far from enough. I believe only some stricter rules are worked out, will the copyright pirating in China be really prohibited in the end. ...

Symbolism of the Journey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Symbolism of the Journey - Essay Example She is worn out with fatigue, and many make it through many obstacles on her way. These include barbed wires, bushes, and thorns. On the other hand, â€Å"The Road Not Taken† by Frost is a poem concerning a speaker who travels along road, where he comes to a junction with two different roads and is in a dilemma concerning which one to take. The narrator alludes to the point the path had been travelled many times before, and it looks weary, though he is not sure he would be able to travel along the same path another time. Generally, the poem and the short story are about hardships, and dilemmas that the two speakers are involved in, with serious impediments along their determination to achieve their objectives. It takes both determination and perseverance for both speakers to travel their chosen paths to the end, though full of impediments and uncertainty. The stories are about decisions that are made in life, and the determination and struggles of many to make it through these life impediments, which are in most cases carved out by destiny, and not our choices. Frost opens the poem by introducing the audience to the dilemma facing the speaker, â€Å"Two roads diverged in a yellow wood and sorry I could not travel both† (Savoie, 2004). These first lines portray the speaker as being indifferent to which way to decide or act. The speaker is more confused, and wishes he could travel both roads simultaneously, as portrayed in his indecisiveness. He stares at the roads for a long time perhaps wondering on the right decision to make, and finding claims to support this decision. The poem speaks on the essential decisions made in life, the nature of choice of how to take one decision or one direction as compared to the other, evaluating how one feels about one direction taken, or which one decides not to take and many more life decisions (Pritchard, 1997). These decisions are vague and unclear, as the speaker is not able to foretell what lies a short dista nce ahead, as portrayed by the last line of the first stanza â€Å"to where it bent in the undergrowth.† The speaker expresses feelings of indifference in what lies ahead, as he cannot see well in advance; the path is dense with undergrowth. Frost presents this indecisiveness to express the feeling of the speaker in anticipating surprises and uncertainties on each road that he takes. Similar to Frost’s path, Phoenix in â€Å"Worn Path† presents a path that is ridden with obstacles and vagueness. The narrative is complicated by the nature of Phoenix as an old woman who struggles to go through this difficult path to get medicine for the ailing grandson. She is old and weak, but the thought of her grandson makes her undergo this tormenting journey. â€Å"While needed rest forces her to stop for a while, she has a vision of a little boy handling her slice of marble cake† (Gilson, 2002). The narrative presents a worn out lady, struggling in a lonely world, alm ost to give up, but thought of her objectives makes her bring out her inner strength to keep going on. Her poverty and the effects of age on her health are clear; one wonders if it was worthy for her to take this torturous path. This is portrayed when she admits â€Å"Something takes hold of me on this hill- pleads I should stay †(Welty, 151). Phoenix is tired and almost to give up his determination, with nature in the so lonely path feeling her weariness and urging her to rest. In Frost’

Modern Times Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Modern Times - Essay Example Nevertheless, the final film of the series seems to be the most overtly political and inevitably then is the most controversial. Although chock-full of the brand of slapstick, physical humor which has become automatically associated with Chaplin’s acting career, Modern Times is often interpreted to be a representation of Chaplin’s own political affiliations and associations with the Left. However, certain aspects of the film make it quite apparent that Leftist politics hold no monopoly on its figurative content. The aforementioned fans of Chaplin who truly cherish his work cannot help but see through the depictions of poverty and suffering in the film, and see the Tramp urging the Gamin â€Å"to keep smiling†, and to see him relying upon his own values and skills to build a life for himself—ideals that are consistent with capitalism and the American dream. Even before the film starts, any attempt on the part of witch-hunters to tie Chaplin to the Left and condemn Modern Times as hidden socialist propaganda is, all at once, defeated.After the opening credits, superimposed on a clock that symbolizes the tyranny of mechanistic time, the words read: â€Å"‘Modern Times.’ A story of industry, of individual enterprise—humanity crusading in the pursuit of happiness.† Expressing the film’s entire thematic content in only a few brief words, such phrases as â€Å"individual enterprise† and â€Å"pursuit of happiness† give attention not to a Leftist political cause in the context of a Depression

Research Methodology, Design and Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6000 words

Research Methodology, Design and Process - Essay Example Nursing practice, like other professions, has constantly been enriched and improved by research critical evaluation strategies. As a result, research critical evaluation involves the most effective means of collecting, analyzing, and evaluating information regarding any aspect in (nursing) practice (Stebbins 2006). The critically generated information becomes the basis of making decision in any field with the aim of improving or filling out the deficiencies that other materials demonstrate. Conducting research is a process that follows specific steps, where in most cases, it has been found seven critical steps are followed. The seven steps are: defining research question, asking for help, developing research strategy and locating resources to use in conducting the research, utilizing the most effective search techniques, reading critically, synthesizing and seeking meaning, understanding the scholarly communication process and citing sources, and lastly, evaluating the sources in the most effective critical way (Stebbins 2006). ... In addition, the review will involve establishing whether the author (s) state explicitly the ideas and information contained in the article; what contribution the article has on the topic it presents; and kind materials presented in the work. This is in addition to how the materials have been expressed and argue about the topic being presented; what alternatives exist in terms of arguing on the materials presented; the available and presentation of theoretical issues in the article; and lastly, the impersonal reaction/argument with regard to the article presented. Quantitative and qualitative research works are both utilized in the nursing practice, with the processes of critique evaluating these two types of information differing greatly. In this research project, critical evaluation of two articles will be conducted whereby, the quantitative critique review will be conducted on an article titled, ‘Measuring self-perceived public health nursing’, while qualitative crit ical review will be conducted on an article titled, ‘Barriers to, and facilitators of post-operative pain management in Iran Nursing’. The third article selected to be used in enriching information for the two articles is the article titled, ‘Delineating the role of a cohort of clinical research nurses in a pediatric cooperative clinical trials groups’. It should be known that the basis of article critical review and evaluation would largely be carried out within the precepts of purpose and objectives of the article, design process, and nature of the article, setting framework of the article, sampling procedure and technique, methods of investigations, research variables, findings, and applicability of

The role of agricultural sector as an accelerator for economic growth in Nigeria Essay Example for Free

The role of agricultural sector as an accelerator for economic growth in Nigeria Essay 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY Agriculture is a systemic and controlled use of living organism and the environment in the improvement of human condition. It also covers farming, husbandry, cultivation of plants, animals, and other life forms for food, fiber, bio-fuel, and drugs. Agriculture is the science, art, or occupation concerned with cultivating land, raising crops, and feeding, breeding, and raising livestock; farming (Dictionary.com). It also is the practice of cultivating and farming animals, food and other life forms that are used to sustain life. It is a science and was key to the rise of human civilisations as agriculture enabled man to be able to feed himself and produce surpluses (Ask.com). Economic Growth, defined as the increasing capacity of an economy to produce goods and services, compared from one period of time to another. Economic growth can be measured in nominal terms, which include inflation, or in real terms, which are adjusted for inflation. For comparing one economic growth to another, GDP or GNP per capita should be used to take into account population difference between countries (Investopedia). The growth of an economy is thought of, not only as an increase in productive capacity but also as an improvement in the quality of life of the people of that economy. The agricultural sector plays a major role in the provision of food, security of raw materials for industries, employment, market for industrial goods such as agro-chemical, tractor and fertilizers, and foreign exchange within the context of capital formation. Before oil, Nigeria had oil; with oil, she had additional opportunity of crops like groundnut, cocoa and rubber. These crops were cultivated in large quantities and exported to Europe and America in the pre-1960s and early-60s, (Nigeria’s founding fathers built the nation from agricultural resources; but since the days of the oil boom we have abandoned all the great opportunities that come with the business of Agriculture). With Military incursions into Nigerian government and the dependence on petroleum products as the foremost foreign exchange earner, the attention to the agricultural sector dwindled. Nigeria’s groundnut pyramids disappeared, the oil palm plantations vanished and farming went back to the subsist ent level. With an increasing population, it became increasingly difficult to feed the masses, and the  country resorted to importing food to supplement the ones grown at home. The agricultural sector has played a crucial role in the social and economic growth and development of Nigeria; however, its full potential has not been reached. In the last two decades, government has paid very little attention to the growth of the agricultural sector, though there has been increased farm output at great cost through major projects, massive investments in rural infrastructure and the introduction of modern seed varieties and chemicals. The agricultural sector is yet to boast of any contribution whereas about 75% of export earnings in the 1970s were from agriculture. Agriculture as a major sector of the Nigerian economy can provide up to 70% of the population with employment. The sector in recent times is being transformed by commercialization at the small, medium and large-scale enterprise levels. Major crops include beans, sesame, cashew nuts, cassava, cocoa beans, groundnuts, gum Arabic, kolanut, maize (corn), melon, millet, palm kernel, palm oil, plantains, rice, rubber, sorghum, soyabeans, and yam in the area of land cultivation, and Fish Farming, Piggery and Poultry in the area of animal husbandry, but this is yet to assure the nature of food security and enough foreign exchange earnings desired. Wikipedia recorded that in 1990, 82 million hectares out of Nigeria’s total land area of about 91million hectares were found to be arable, although only 42% of cultivatable area was farmed; leaving us with unused arable land of about 58%. In 2013, the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) was introduced by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture. The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) has a great potential in enhancing the role of agriculture as an engine of inclusive growth leading to rural employment, Wealth creation, and diversification of the economy. A major policy accomplishment in the sector is the liberation of seed and fertilizer supply, which had until now been controlled by the federal government, undermined the private sector and did not deliver the inputs to genuine farmers. Since September 2011, fertilizers and seeds are being sold by the companies directly to farmers. Lending commitments from commercial banks has been leveraged using guarantees issued by th e Ministry of Finance. In order to provide a legal framework for the establishment and perpetuity of staple crop processing zones, and transform the Nigerian agricultural sector with significant multiplier effects on the entire economy, an Act to provide a legal framework for the establishment of  Staple Crop Processing Zones (SCPZ) is currently being drafted prepared to the National Assembly for adoption. Agriculture has a stronghold in any economy, for without it, a country will always have to depend on foreign countries to feed her population thereby exposing herself to the issues of food security. Moreover, the growth in the agricultural sector could be a catalyst for national output through its effect on rural incomes and provision of resources for transformation into the industrialized economy. Therefore; it is clear that agricultural growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic development as evidence from industrialized countries like China and India. Countries that are just rapidly developing today have also indicated that the sector has been the engine that contributes to the growth of the overall economy like China. 1.2STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Agriculture is the single largest contributor to the well-being of the rural poor in Nigeria, sustaining about 86% of rural household in the country. Improved agricultural development and growth, can offer a pathway out of poverty. But until very recently, agriculture has suffered the effect of several decades of neglect. Nigeria’s agricultural policies have been inconsistent, uncoordinated and ad hoc. After very slow growth during the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural growth began to pick during the 1990s and, since 2000, has averaged 5.6 per annum. However, even with the rapid agriculture growth of the past decade, Nigeria still has one of the highest poverty rates in the world. A paradigm shift towards a sound evidence-based policymaking process is needed to promote more equitable, gender sensitive and environmentally sustainable growth in the agricultural sector. The recent food price surge has made this shift even more important. It is clear that Nigeria has an arable land of about 82 million hectares and only 48% has been farmed. It is also clear that the agricultural sector is sustaining about 86% of the rural household in the country. There has also been a lack of coordination of agriculture policies. The reason Nigeria still has one of the highest ratings of poverty in the world. This research work is targeted at reconciling the opportunity inherent in the Nigeria’s poor/rural population; vis-à  -vis the massive uncultivated arable land through small scale agricultural support from the government. It will further re-echo  existing solutions as well as provide additional information on our challenges in agriculture as a nation, with a view to providing thought provoking and inciteful analysis of the opportunities inherent in an agricultural based economy, particularly for a blessed nation like Nigeria with quality arable land, and enough water resources to support animal husbandry. 1.3OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objective of this research work is to study the roles of agricultural sector as an accelerator for the economic growth in Nigeria. Specific objectives: The study is aimed at: 1. Assessing the various policies and programmes used in promoting the agricultural sector in Nigeria, failures and successes. 2. Evaluating the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the years, that is1980-2012 and the way forward. 3. Making suggestions as to how the full potential of the sector could be realized in line with the successful policies and other developments. 1.4RESEARCH QUESTIONS This study seeks to find answers to the following research questions; 1. What are the roles of the agricultural sector in relations to the growth of the Nigerian economy? 2. What efforts has the government made to restore the agricultural sector in Nigeria? 3. What is the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the years? 4. What could be done to make the agricultural sector achieve its full potential? 1.5RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS The research hypothesis is to create a relationship between the growth on agricultural sector and the Nigerian economy as well as the inverse relationship between them. = Growthof the agricultural sector playsno significant roles in the economy. = Growthof the agricultural sector plays significant roles in the economy. 1.6SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The significance of this study depends on the fact that with an improved economy, Nigeria stands to gain in its effects towards economic growth. It is advantageous to both the government and citizens; in the sense that its  serves as a guide for future governmental policy on agriculture and when this is well implemented, we will notice that the welfare and standards of living of the citizens will be improved. 1.7THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY This study examines the timeframe of 1980-2012. The purpose of choosing this period is to empirically test the significance or the extent to which the agricultural sector contributes to the economy’s growth despite the several years of government’s neglect, and to re-emphasize the need to properly coordinate Government policies and reconcile the opportunity of our rural population with the available natural resources, particularly the arable land for optimum usage and the renewal effects towards stabilizing the agricultural sector. The performance of Nigeria’s agricultural sector shall be evaluated in detail as well as efforts of the government at restoring the sector examined. This study will also go further to discuss the major constraints on the performance of the Nigeria agricultural sector. The limitations are due to lack of available data information, time factor, and cost involved in carrying out this type of research. 1.8DEFINITION OF TERMS. i. Capital Formation; this can be defined as the transfer of savings from individuals or households to the business sector, directly through investment or indirectly through banks. ii. Husbandry; this is defined as the science of raising crops or food animals or the cultivation and production of edible crops or of animals for food. iii. Labour-Intensive; is a process or industry that requires large amount of labour to produce its goods and services. iv. Global Warming; an increase in earth’s average atmospheric temperature that causes corresponding changes in climate and that may result from the greenhouse effect. v. Greenhouse Effect; an atmospheric heating phenomenon, caused by short wave solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the earth’s atmosphere but longer wave length heat radiation less readily transmitted outwards, owing its absorption by atmospheric carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, and other gases; thus the rising level of carbon dioxide is viewed with concern. CHAPTER TWO 2.1 INTRODUCTION This section presents the theoretical, methodological and empirical review of literature. The theoretical review covers various theories on the subject matter, while the methodological review also cover various methodological issues used in the past studies and the empirical review present various findings that results from the methodologies. 2.2THEORETICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE The study of economic history provides us with ample evidence that an agricultural revolution is a fundamental pre-condition for economic development (Eicher and Witt, 1964, Olusanmi, 1966, Jones and Wolff, 1969). The agricultural sector has the potentials to be the industrial and economic spring board from which a country’s development can take off. Indeed, agricultural activities are usually concentrated in the less developed rural transformation, redistribution, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development (Stewart, 2000). Agriculture can be advanced beyond its primary function of supplying food and its primary cultural sector has the potential to shape the landscape, guarantee the sustainable management of renewable resources of many rural areas (Humbert, 2000). In fact, through its different spheres of activities at macro and micro levels, the agricultural sector is strategically positioned to have a higher multiplier effect on any nation’s quest for socio-ec onomic and industrial development. It is very obvious that a sustainable agricultural growth has been highly instrumental in Brazil’s rapid rural transformation, the empowerment of Brazilian peasant and the alleviation of abject poverty. Interestingly, the Nigerian economy like that of Brazil during the first decade after independence could reasonably be described as an agricultural economy because agriculture serves as the engine of growth of the overall economy (Ogen, 2003: 231-234). From the stand point of occupational distribution and contribution of GDP, agriculture was the leading sector. During this period, Nigeria was the world’s second largest producer of cocoa, largest exporter of palm kernel and largest producer and exporter of palm oil. Nigeria was also a leading exporter of other commodities such as cotton, groundnut, rubber and hides and skin (Alkali 1977: 15-16). The agricultural sector contributed over 60% to the GDP in the 1960s and despite the reliance of the Nigerian peasant  farmers on traditional tools and indigenous farming method, the farmers produce 70% of Nigeria’s export and 95% of its food needs (Lawal 1997: 195). However, the agricultural sector suffered neglect during the hay days of boom in the 1970s. Ever since then, Nigeria has been witnessing extreme poverty. Historically, the root of the crisis in Nigerian economy lies in the neglect of agriculture and the increased dependence on a monoculture economy based on oil. The agricultural sector now accounts for less than 5% of Nigeria’s GDP (Olagboju and Falola 1996: 263). It is against this back drop that this paper sets out to draw comparative analysis from the Brazilian experience for possible replication in Nigeria. Such an approach is particularly feasible given the fact that Nigeria shares so much in common with Brazil in terms of a highly conducive agricultural climate, huge and diverse population as well as the availability of natural resources. 2.2.1MEANING OF ECONOMIC GROWTH According to Turrets (1987) â€Å"the economic growth of a country can be defined in various ways as an increase in gross domestic product, in real GDP or in per capital GDP†. It is clear therefore, that the rate of growth of the real GDP country. If we want to determine the growth in Nigeria for example, the rate of growth of its real GDP stands as the most appropriate measure. Alternatively, we can also examine the meaning of economic growth through the use of production possibility curve. A production possibility curve is used to depict the maximum quantities of two goods or types of goods that can be produced when all the resources of the country are fully and efficiently utilized. However, smith (1996) visualised that economic growth results from specialization of labour, application of new technology as well as through international trade. But one important fact to note is that, since economic activities tend to or shift outward, countries will always record a positive g rowth rate and sometimes negative, such as inward of country’s production possibility curve (PPC) (Clawer, Graves and Sexton, 1989).Nigeria’s economy had in some ears of the late1980s and through 1990s recorded some negative growth rate and in fact, still does till date and even beyond. 2.2.2AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH Development economists in general and agricultural economists in particular,  have focused on how agriculture can best contribute to overall economic growth and modernization. Many early analyst (Fel and Rani, 1954; Jorgensen 1961; Hirschman 1958; Scitovsky 1954; Lewis 1954; Rosentein-rodan 1943), have highlighted agriculture because of its abundance of resources and its ability to transfer surpluses to the more important industrial sector. The conventional approach to the roles of agriculture in economic growth concentrated on agriculture’s important market-mediated linkages, and they are: i. Providing food for the expanding population with higher income. ii. Providing labour for an urbanized industrial work force. iii. Supplying savings for investment in industry. iv. Enlarging markets for industrial output providing export earnings to pay for imported capital goods and v. Providing primary material for agro processing industries (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1990, Johnson and Mellor 1961). Rapid agricultural productivity growth is a prerequisite for the market mediated linkages to be mutually beneficial. Productivity growth that resulted from agriculture has had enormous impacts on food supplies and food prices and consequent beneficial impacts on food security and poverty reduction (Hazel and Hag blade 1993, Binswanger 1980, Hayami and Herdt 1977, Pinstrup Anderson 1976); Alston et al (1996), posit that because a relatively high proportion of any income gain made by the poor is spent on food, the income effect of research induced supply shift can have major multinational implications, particularly if those shift results from technologies aimed at the poorest producers. Agricultural productivity growth also triggers the generat ion of non-market mediated linkages between the agricultural sector and the rest of the economy. These includes the indirect contribution of a vibrant agricultural sector to food security and poverty alleviation, safely net and buffer role; and the supply of environmental services (FAO, 2004). While agricultures direct private contributions to form households are tangible, easy indirect benefits tend to be over looked in assessing rate of returns. Ignoring the whole range of economic and social contributions of agriculture underestimates the returns to investments in the sector (Valdes and Foster, 2005). Some empirical evidence exists on the positive relationship between agricultural growth (Valdes and Foster 2005). The transformation of agriculture from its  traditional subsistence roots induced by technical change, to a modernizing agricultural sector is a phenomenon observed across the developing world. Concluding, it is clear that agricultural growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic development. Evidence from industrialized countries that are rapidly developing today indicates that agriculture was the engine that contributed to growth in the non-agricultural sectors and to overall economic wellbeing. Economic growth originating in agriculture can have a particular strong impact in reducing poverty and hunger. Increasing employment and income in agriculture stimulates demand for non-agricultural goods and services, thereby providing a boost to non-farm rural income earners as well. 2.2.3AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. The contribution of agriculture to economic development lies in: i. Providing more food to the rapidly expanding population increasing the demand for industrial product, and thus necessitating the expansion of secondary and tertiary sectors. ii. It can release workers needed for the production of non-agricultural goods and services. iii. It can provide a source of capital that can be invested in improved productive facilities in the rest of the economy (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1996. Johnson and Mellor 1961). A progressive urban industrial economy contributes, in turn, to the rapid development of agriculture by expanding the market for agricultural products; by supplying the farm machinery, chemical fertilizers and so on, that raise the level of agricultural technology; by expanding productive employment opportunities for workers released from agriculture by technological change; and by making possible improvements in the quality of rural life by raising standards of consumption both in urban and rural areas (Binswanger, 1980). A rise in rural purchasing power, as a result of the increased agricultural surplus, is a great stimulus to industrial development. The market for manufactured goods is very small in an underdeveloped country where the peasant farm labourers and their families, comprising typically two goods in addition to whatever they need. There is lack of real purchasing power thus reflecting the low productivity in agriculture. The basic problem thus is low investment return caused by small size of the market. Increased rural  purchasing power caused by expansion of agricultural output and productivity will tend to raise the demand for manufactured goods and extend the size of the market. This will lead to the expansion of the industrial sector (Lewis, 1954). Moreover, the demand for such inputs as fertilizers, tractors, better tools, implements, irrigational facilities in the agricultural sectors will all lead to the greater expansions of the agricultural sector. Besides, the means of transport and communications will expand to urban areas and manufactured goods to the rural areas. The long run effects of the expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors will be towards higher profits in them whether they are operated in the private or the public sector. These profits will tend to increase the rate of capital fo rmation through their re-investment. That is what Kuznets calls the â€Å"market contributions† of agriculture when it trades with other sectors of the economy. Underdeveloped countries mostly specialize in the production of a few agricultural goods for export. As output and productivity of the exportable goods expand, their exports increase and results in larger foreign exchange earnings. Thus agricultural surplus leads to capital formation when capital goods are imported with this foreign exchange. As development gains momentum due to industrialization, the proportion of agricultural export in the country’s total exports is likely to fall as they are needed in large quantities for domestic production of imported articles. Such articles are import substitutes and conserve foreign exchange. Similarly, increased marketed surplus of food grains leads to a net saving of foreign exchange, as the economy tries to achieve the goal of self-sufficiency in food production. Larger productions of food and export crops do not only conserve and earn foreign exchange, but also leads to expansion of the other sectors of the economy. Foreign exchange earnings can be used to build efficiency of other industries and help the establishment of new indus tries by importing scare raw materials, machines, capital equipment and technical know-how. Kuznets calls it the â€Å"product contribution† of agriculture which first argues about the growth of net output of the economy and the growth of per capita output. An underdeveloped needs large amounts of capital to finance expansion of the infrastructure and for the development of basic and heavy industries. In the early stages of development, capital can be provided by increasing the marketable surplus from the rural sector without reducing  consumption levels from population. According to Johnson and Mellor (1961) â€Å"an increase in agricultural productivity implies some combination of capital formation when it is reduced on the farm and employed in construction works†. But the possibility of utilizing unskilled surplus form labour on capital project requiring skilled labour is limited. The second possibility of increasing capital formation through reduced agricultural prices is also not feasible in the early stages of development when the rise in price is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is possible in the long run but democratic countries may not be able to follow this reasoning for political reasons. A more practicable solution is to stabilize the prices in farm products. The third possibility of increasing farm receipts is perhaps the best way for capital formation. This can be done by mobilizing increased farm incomes through agricultural income tax, land registration charges, s chool fees, for providing agricultural technical services and other types of fees that cover all or part of the farm population. But â€Å"political and institutional problems makes it difficult to translate the increased potential for saving and capital accumulation, made possible by increased agricultural productivity, into an actual increase in investment in underdeveloped countries. According to Wald, special assessments have had their widest application in the United States. In view of the fact that they are specially designed for financing such developed projects as irrigation works, flood control system and certain classes of roads, all of which are extremely important for underdeveloped countries like India that â€Å"the penalties of too light taxation on agriculture are a stagnating farm sector, a financially starved public sector and a retarded rate of economic growth in the country as a whole; (Wald, 1995). Thus countries were agriculture dominates, the taxation of agriculture in one form or another is essential for mobilizing agricultural surplus in order to accelerate economic development. Kuznets calls it the â€Å"factor of contribution† when there is a transfer of resources to the other sectors, these resources to the other sectors, these resources being productive factors. Agriculture also expands and diversifies employment opportunities in rural areas. As agricultures productivity and farm income increases, non-farm rural employment expands and diversifies. Landless and marginal farmers are primarily engaged in  non-agricultural pursuits which includes the manufacturers of textile, furniture, tools, handicraft, leather and metal processing, marketing, transport, repair work, construction of houses and other buildings, education, medicine and other services, as these activities satisfy local demand. Lastly, increase in rural incomes as a result of the agricultural surplus tends to improve rural welfare. Peasant starts consuming more food especially of a higher nutritional value in the form of superior quality cereals, eggs, ghee, milk, fruits etc. They build better houses fitted with modern amenities like electricity, furniture, radio, fan etc. provide themselves with bicycles, motorcycles, watches, readymade garments, shoe etc. they also receive direct satisfaction from such services such as schools, health centres, irrigation, banking, transport and communication facilities. Thus increased agricultural surplus has the effect of raisi ng the standards of living of the mass of rural people. 2.2.4NIGERIAN ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT Nigeria was and is still basically an agricultural country despite the fact that there is significant growth in the other sector of the economy since her independence in 1960. Agriculture remains the single largest sector of the economy since it provides employment to a large segment of the work force and constituting the main stay of Nigeria’s rural population. Since 1985, the percentage of gross domestic product attributable to agriculture has been maintained about 31%, well ahead of mining and quarrying, which includes crude petroleum and gas as well as whole sale and retail trade, which are also the other two major contributors to GDP in Nigeria. Before 1970, the agricultural sector has enjoyed a relatively abundant supply of farm labour and cultivable land for agriculture was able to respond quite steadily to a rising demand. An expansion of land under cultivation and increased absorption of rural labour constituted a ready means for output expansion. However, the 1970s o il boom saw a high rate of rural-urban population migrating, which resulted into supply demand imbalance in the food subsector, while traditional export declined sharply in both absolute and relative terms. From 1970, Nigeria’s agriculture has been characterized by excess demand over supply due to high population growth rate, stagnant declining economic growth, high rate of globalization, increased demand for  agricultural raw materials by an expanding industrial sector and the rising per capita income which is stimulated by an oil export revenue boom. The decline in production of tradable has raised serious domestic and external balancing problems. The output of domestic inputs using agro-allied firms is constrained by output fluctuation, which reduces the size of export revenues and market shares. This adversely affects the balance of payment. The agricultural sector was estimated to decline at an annual average of 0.43% between 1970 and 1985 while the periods between 1975 and 1978 recorded the highest level of decline of 7.88%. The agricultural export crop sub-sectors contribution to the total foreign earnings declined from an average of 58% in the 1960s to only 5.2% between 1971 and 1985. Indeed, by 1980, Nigeria had become a net importer of food and most of its tradable export crops had either disappeared from the export list or merely maintained an insignificant presence. As it were, the agricultural export sub-sector became increasingly unable to meet the raw material needs to the primarily processing industries and furthermore, inflationary pressure characterized the economy, general degeneration of rural life and rural urban migration. Notwithstanding, the observed agricultural decline, agricultural policy appeared to have been more active in the 1970s than in the 1960s. In the formal period, the government implanted successful programme like National Agricultural Food Production Programme (NAFP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) and green revolution programme, also banks assisted Agricultural Development Programme (ADP). Government also tried to improve marketing system for agricultural export crops by reforming the marketing board system in 1973, 1976 and 1977. Agricultural sector did not improve; as a result there was introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986, which necessitated the deregulation of exchange rates and abolition of marketing board system. 2.2.5AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION DURING THE STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (SAP) One of the most important debates the structural adjustment programme (SAP) has centred on the impact of the programme on agricultural sector. It was anticipated that the measures adopted under this programme will bring about increased domestic production of food and eventual elimination of food import, increase supply of manufacturing industries of agricultural raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, oil palm, rubber etc. was also anticipated (Obadan and Egbase, 1992). Also, the  diversification of export base of the economy would be enhanced with the increase in the agricultural prices and boom in the sector, production was expected to translate into rising rural employment, income and standard of living. Therefore, the agricultural production will be viewed from two perspectives, which is agricultural food production during SAP and agricultural export during SAP. 2.2.6AGRICULTURAL FOOD PRODUCTION DURING SAP Following the introduction of SAP in 1986, some writers have claimed that food production have been on the increasing sides. Since one of the expectations of complimenting this programme is to bring food and to make sure that the importation of food is eradicated. Iwayemi in 1994 found out that one of the positive developments in recent years is a merging trend of upward turn in the production of agricultural tradable (rice, soya beans and maize) and of the non-traded food category and cassava has performed impressively. Furthermore, it was discovered that immediately after the introduction of SAP, there were sharp increase in the prices of staples such as yam, cassava, rice, maize, etc. for instance the average market retail price in Kwara state rose from â‚ ¦450 per tonne to â‚ ¦560 per tonne in 1986 and â‚ ¦686 per tonne in 1986. Also, the average market price of rice in Kaduna state rose from â‚ ¦1500 in 1985 to â‚ ¦1700 and â‚ ¦2213 in 1992. These increases in the price of staples are adduced to high inflationary pressures resulting from SAP. Also Edgbai (1988)argued that the devaluation of the Naira following the advent of the SAP lead to spectacular increase in the prices of most agricultural inputs, implements and machinery. The percentage price increase of these inputs between 1985, the last pre-SAP year’s ranges between 50% and 70% using official prices subsequently there have indeed been increases in the producer prices of maize development. Finally, Iwayemi (1994) concluded that the most pressing problem in the sector is the lack of adequate production capacity to meet domestic food requirement of rapidly raising large population. 2.2.7AGRICULTURAL EXPORT DURING SAP The major aim of introducing SAP was to improve the agricultural export through the depreciation of the country’s currency. However, different researches hold different opinions concerning this. For instance, Obadan (1993) found out that SAP policy of exchange rate adjustment was an  important factor that positively affected supply of rubber and suggested that real depreciation of the naira for example, tends to stimulate rubber farmers to increase supply of export, thus talking advantage of the improved international competitiveness. In modern development, with the exception of rubber, the export elasticity of cocoa, palm kernel and processed or semi processed product with respect to change in exchange in Nigeria was generally of low order even in the long run. Hence, Obadan and Egbase (1992) concluded that export base production activities especially agriculture, have benefited from the SAP incentive arising particularly from naira to depreciation and trade liberalization. Thus, quantity of natural rubber exported rose from 32000 in 1985 to 108600 in 1991, changes in naira exchange rate significantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP. In contrast, Ajilim and Agba, (1986) claimed that there is over whelming evidence that SAP has very slim prospect for stimulating non-oil export e.g. cocoa. Also Dayo, (1996) discovered that the low elasticity estimate was due to limited volume of agricultural export earning in response to devaluation of the naira. Also, Ajayi (1988) and Osagie (1985) posit In that in Nigeria, exchange rate devaluation is stagnant and have no significant effect on the external trade balance because of low prices elasticity generally associated with the excess import and export demand functions. In other words Balogun (1987) estimated agricultural export function with exchange export has the redress and the result showed unresponsiveness of aggregate agricultural export to exchange rate, price and imported and agricultural input. He thus, concluded that the agricultural sector, which is dominated by smaller hold farming, is insulated from external trade variables or shocks. Finally, Obadan and Egbase (1992) argued that export base production activity, especially agriculture, have benefited from SAP incentives arising particularly from naira depreciation and trade liberalization, for example in response to the price and exchange liberalization, the quantity of natural exported rose from 32000tonnes in 1985 to 33000 in 1986 and 108800 in 1991 changes in naira exchange rate significantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP. However Obadan (1993) argued that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though that the number of agricultural export have increase, the value is still in significant. 2.2.8THE EFFECT OF SAP AND THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. Warder (1995) analysed  the economic and political development on Nigeria’s agricultural sector including the application of the structural adjustment programme (SAP). He discovered that with the application of SAP, that the country was able to orient her agricultural production toward the production and exportation of cash crops while Husia and Farugee (1994) found out that for any developing country like Nigeria to experience the turn-around in our country, the country should establish and maintain macro-economic stability, eliminate discrimination against agriculture and take measures to remove anti export bias. Furthermore, Obadan (1994) stated that the agricultural sector during SAP was able to reverse negative gro wth of the economy during the early 1980s, because of more favourable more weather conditions and adoption of a floating exchange rate system which favoured agriculture deregulation of agricultural prices and the priority according to the implementation of the key public sector agricultural programs. Stanley (1987) added that SAP policy consisted of measures that are aim at achieving viability in the medium term balance of payment why the level and rate of growth of economy activity was maintained at the optimal level of operation. In addition Ojo (1988) stated that the effect of SAP on agricultural and rural development has brought about an increase in agricultural production and there was an improvement in rural development.He however, noted that the fundamental problems of Nigeria agriculture still persist. In contrast, since the theoretical bases of SAP is based on the invisible hand or market mechanism, Obadan and Ekuarhare (1993) opined that a Pareto system which required a free market economy may not be idea for a developing or even a developed country. This is because the market mechanism may faster efficiency but not equity. The price mechanism which is concerned with state resources allocation undermines economic growth and development in developing countries. ‘â €™consequently, without governments intervention in economic activities, the market leads to misallocation of present and future resource or at least to one which may not be in long run in the best interests of the society’’ (Torado 1977, 164 quoted in Obadan and Ekuarhare 1993). Finally, Obadan and Ekuarhare opined further that the fiscal monetary exchange policy mix contained in SAP is inter-consistent with economic recovery from a recession (from which the country has been battling due to external shock and the crisis of accumulation within the domestic bourgeoisie). Recovery  from this cyclical downturn characterized by below capacity nation production would require an increase in government expenditure to provide greater employment and increased social benefit. In other words, the deflation an economy coupled with deregulation and liberalization will not lead to an upturn of the economy. Therefore,Obadan (1993) discovered that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though the number of non-oil manufactured agricultural export items have increased the value and is still insignificant. For instance, exchange in-flow from non-oil exports reduce from $557million in 1985(per SAP) to $538 million in 1987. It increased to $613 million in 1988 bu t reduced drastically to $406million in 1990 and by 1992; the sector only contributed 3.6% of the nation’s foreign exchange. The value of agricultural export which stood at an average of â‚ ¦408.7 million before declining sharply to â‚ ¦270.8 million in 1981-1985, owing largely to decline in cash crop producers. During SAP, export earnings grew to â‚ ¦1822.9 million in 1986-1990 for primary agricultural commodities such as tubers, fruits and spices coming on board. In addition, export of manufacturers and semi manufacturers of agricultural products which earned only â‚ ¦37.2 million in 1891-1985 recorded the sum of â‚ ¦214.9 million in 1986-1990 as Nigeria became exporter of textile, soap, detergent, beer, beverages and skin in addition to cocoa products. Emmanuel (2002) viewed productivity as the wealth of a nation. According to him, Nigeria is generously endowed with abundant natural resources. He further argued that if this enormous resources base is well managed, through increased productivity, the wealth of the nation is bound to increase. He argued that a farmer plants a seed and reaps several harvesting period, productivity has increased and the wealth of a nation has increased too. The mercantilists (18th century) argued that productivity in the agricultural sector contributed the least to the economic growth. They said that it only promoted domestic trade and did not fore see mechanization and modernization that took over manual labour in the agricultural sector, as agricultural commodities are not only traded domestically but exported to other countries. 2.2.9AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND EXPORT The breakdown of agricultural production into its component parts reveals the problems during 1985 period. While food production recorded only a marginal  increase export crop production declined sharply. The inadequate domestic food production is reflected in Nigeria’s massive food imports, especially in the 1970’s to argument domestic supply. The supply in the production of some of Nigeria’s cultural export commodities was most worrisome for instance, Nigeria that was ranked as the world leading producer and exporter of palm oil in the 1960s had become the net importer of this commodity in the mid-70s. Similarly, Nigeria’s cocoa production, which reached its peak of 309000 tonnes in 1970-71, fell drastically to 160000 tonnes in 1985. The sharp turn down in the gross value terms of trade in agriculture was equally serious. The ratio of agricultural exports to food imports which stood at 143% in 1970-1975 suffered significant deterioration and reached th e lowest at 38% by 1976-1982. The performance of agriculture during the review period was underdetermined mainly by its neglect coupled with a chain of distributive created by the oil boom. 2.3THE METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE Several policies as well as policy instruments have been put to place over the year by successive government in Nigeria. Some had positive effect while the others had negative effects. Olayami (1985) identified three distinct agricultural policy era under which the agricultural sector developed for the past three decades, these includes; the 1960-1969 era, the 1970-1985 eras. These policies were targeted at improving the performance of the sector during this period. A review of these policies would be discussed; Agricultural policy during these periods was limited to marketing and pricing for which the marketing board was established. Actually, at the outbreak of World War 2 in 1939, government owned marketing boards were setup in British, West Africa to assure orderly marketing and to protect British supplies of raw materials (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986). Government was involved in agricultural research and extension of services but the issue of self-sufficiency in agriculture for food and raw materials was not pursued. Also investment in agriculture with initiatives to improve employment was left to the initiative in farming. During this period, there was decentralised approach to agriculture with initiatives being left to the regions and the states while the federal government played a supportive role. Regional government were executing abhor policies, programme and  projects. There was no institutional federal responsibility for agriculture and there were no specific agricultural sector objectives. There were a number of policies and programme and some of them are discussed below; 2.3.1AGRICULTURAL MARKETING POLICY The agricultural marketing board system was used extensively in marketing agricultural products during this period. The system started with the establishment of a commodity marketing board in 1947 and for groundnut, palm produce and cotton in 1949. In 1954, the board became regionalized with one multi commodity marketing board for each of the regions, and later for each of the states. The board accumulated huge trading surpluses which were used to mobilize substantial savings for the government. These surpluses were generated at the expense of the stability of farmers’ income. The farmers’ income was kept low and with increasing risk on the farm declining world commodity prices of the mid 60s, there was an incentive for peasant increase production (Adubi, 1966). 2.3.2AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION PROJECTS The regional government of the east and western Nigeria stared this project and then later the north, to encourage the development of these crops. There financed from surpluses of the marketing boards. This was before the creation state, the UNIX oil palm plantation (now in Rivers and Cross Rivers), the Hushin rubber estates (now in Ogun state), and the upper Ogun cattle ranches etc. 2.3.3FARM SETTLEMENT SCHEME In the early 1960s the regional government assisted school leavers who were willing to go into agriculture establishment farm settlement scheme in places like Edo, Ilora, Ikenne, Ibadan and so on. The farm settlement were setup as model for other farmers who often look up practises being carried out by settlers and had easy access to farm equipment and services. However, due to non-ownership pattern of the scheme, farm and house power supply problems and the limited individuals’ holdings, most settlers were not committed. The owned land outside the greater settlement and mainly used the opportunity to obtain services through membership of a settlement scheme (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986) 2.3.41970-1985 ERA (PERIOD OF MAXIMUM  GOVERNMENT INTERVENSION) Agricultural production started to decline towards the end of the decades of 1960s. Export crops outputs were stagnating while export volumes begin to decrease, and there was evidence of food shortages in the country. The 1963 G DP figures for example shows that agriculture crops, livestock, fishing and forestry accounted for 64% of total GDP and the average for 1960s decade estimated at 56%. Similarly, in the export sector, the percentage of agricultural produce was declining (Adubi, 1966). The problem of agricultural production decline was ascribed partly to the civil war and partly to the declining commodity process in the world market and the incentive to production due to taxation of the commodity board. There was therefore greater involvement of the government in agriculture. The expenditure of government and therefore for its investment increase in the sector specific sector emphasis of policy was on accelerating production of the staple food crops and some export crops. There was a fundamental shift in the strategy compared with the decade of 1960s and the federal government became more involved in the sector.The strategy taken, led to the launching of several special programme and projects. Also specialised in institutions were setup to ensure smooth implementation of the agricultural policies; the period witnessed many macroeconomic and sector specific policies, which directly or indirectly affects agricultural production. Many of the macroeconomic policies of the government had wide spread effect on agriculture, though not targeted at the agricultural sector, until there are some programme which includes marketing policy, input supply and distribution policy and input subsidy policy. Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) and River Basin Development Authority (RBDA) were also established to promote agricultural developments. 2.3.5THE 1985-1999 ERA (SAP AND POST SAP PERIOD) With the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986, government admitted the failure of past policies to significantly improve the economy and reverse the declining trend of production in the agricultural sector. The SAP relied most especially on the agricultural sector to achieve the objectives of its far reaching refunds on diversification of export and adjustment of the consumption structure of the economy. The philosophy of SAP for the agricultural sector was that only the interplay of the market  forces could foster efficiency in the sector. The government was therefore expected to play minimal role for private sector initiative in the sector. Many of the policy measure adopted in SAP and macro in nature and those that affect agriculture also fall directly into fiscal, monetary, trade and exchange rate policies as well as institutional policy refunds. Many institutions such as National Directorate of Employment (NDE), Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFR RI), National Agricultural Insurance Company (NAIC), National Land Development Authority (NALDA) were established to assist new farmers and promote agriculture development in the rural areas. Essentially, these policies and programme were implemented until 1999. The changes in the government during the review period 1985-1999 also led to modifications of some of the policies above, which essentially formed the major focus of government on agricultural development. 2.3.6THE NEW MILLENNIUM AGRICULTURAL POLICIES (1999-2003) At the inception of the new democratic administration in May 1999 and shortly before then, several institutional changes were made in order to realize the sector’s objectives and in line with its belief that agricultural and rural development are sine que non for improved economy recovery (Olamola, 2003) these includes the relocation of department of cooperatives. Division of the ministry of Water Resources to the ministry of agriculture all before 1999, the scrapping of the erst while National Agricultural Land Development Department, the scrapping of the Federal Agriculture Coordinating Unit (FACU) and the Agricultural Project Monitoring and Evaluating Unit (APMEU) and the setting up of Project Co-ordination Unit (PCU) and the stream lining institution for agricultural credit delivery with the emergency of the Nigerian Agricultural Co-operative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) and the peoples bank and the asset of the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP). New inst itutions are also evolving to enable the Nigerian agricultural sectors respond to the imperative of the emerging global economic order. The new agricultural policy has a clear statement of objectives amid the structural transformation necessary for the overall socio-economic development of the country as well as the improvement in the quality of life of Nigeria. This objective reflects the current policy recognition of agriculture as a vital sector under the poverty reduction  programme (FMARD, 2003). The government also seeks to pursue the following specific objectives: i. Attainment of self-sufficiency in basic food commodities with particular reference to those which consume considerable shares of Nigerian’s foreign exchange and for which the country has comparative advantage in local production. ii. Increase in production and processing of exportable commodities with a view to increase their foreign exchange earning capacity and further diversifying the country’s export base and source of foreign exchange earnings. iii. Increase in production of agricultural raw materials to meet the growth of an expanding industrial sector. iv. Modernization of agricultural production, processing, storage and distribution through the infusion of improved technologies and management so that agriculture can be more responsive to the demand s of other sectors of the Nigerian economy. v. Creation of more agricultural and rural employment opportunities to increase income of farmers and rural dwellers, productivity absorbed and increasing labour force in the nation. These objectives are properly in agreement with the whole concept of agricultural sustainability and inter-linkage between agriculture and each of the relevant sectors of the economy. As it is usual with the specification of agricultural policy objectives from time immemorial, these objectives are clearly presented and are basically consistent with the overall strategy of diversifying the productive base of the economy for an increased foreign exchange generation, higher level of employment and productivity and improved economy recovery. Specification of policy objectives had been the most easily accomplished component of agricultural policy formulation in particular and development planning experience in the country in general. It is therefore not surprising that the specified objectives in the new policy document are indeed comprehensive and quite appropriate. 2.4POLICY EVALUATION It might be difficult to evaluate all the policies objectively given the space and the focus. However, evidence from some authors (Olayemi 1995, Olamola 1998, Garb 1998) has indicated minimal positive impact of these policies. Also, the performance of the sector is far from being fully satisfactory. The evidence of these is the decaying rural infrastructure, decline domestic and foreign investment in agriculture. In fact the  increasing withdrawal of manufacturing companies from their backward integrated agricultural ventures has reduced investment in the sector considerably. Input supply and distribution have been inefficient and most agricultural institutions are ineffective. The evidence of ineffectiveness is the scrapping in the year 2000 of some of the institutions established for agricultural production, a critical examination of the policies and there implementation over the years to show policy instability. This problem is not unconnected with the political instability in t he country. Between 1979 and 1999, the country has passed through five military and civilian regimes. In between the minister of agriculture at the federal level and the various commissioners for agriculture at the state level were changed several times on the average of one per two years. Several policy measures were stated and changed without sufficient rating for policy effect or result. 2.4.1POLICY INCONSISTENCIES. With respect to agricultural production, the sector has passed through several periods of production and unbridled opening up for competition. It has also passed through eras of no government and less government involvement in direct agricultural production. The consistencies of policy transparency, leads to poor implementation and mismanagement of policy instruments. 2.5EMPERICAL REVIEW Oji-Okoro (2011) investigate the contribution of agricultural sector on the Nigerian economic development and reveal that foreign direct investment on agriculture contribute the most (56.43), this means that for every unit of change in FDI on agriculture there is a corresponding change of 56.43 unit in GDP in Nigeria. Suleiman and Aminu (2010) conducted research on the contribution of agriculture, petroleum and manufacturing sector of the Nigerian economy and found out that agricultural sector is contributing higher than both petroleum and manufacturing sectors. The paper reveals that agriculture is contributing 1.7978 units to GDP while petroleum is contributing 1.14 units to GDP which is less than the contribution of agriculture. Awe and Ajayi (2009) conducted research on the diversification of the significant when the log of revenue from agriculture was tested on the revenue from agriculture. About 60 percent of the movement could be  explained in the relationship. The findings from the study further revealed that dynamic relationship exists between the revenue from the non-oil sector economic development. Ekpo and Umoh (2012) revealed that the contribution of agriculture to GDP, which was 63 percent in 1960, declined to 34 percent in 1988, not because the industrial sector increased its share but due to neglect of agriculture sector. It was therefore not surprising that by 1975, the economy had become a net importer of basic food items. The apparent increase in industry and manufacturing from 1978 to 1988 was due to activities in the mining sub-sector, especially petroleum. Muhammad and (2006) conducted study on production of agriculture in Nigeria and revealed that the negative coefficient of the value (-0.07) of the food imports indicates that as food import increases, domestic agricultural production decreases. This might be due to the fact that food importation exposes the local farmers to unfair competition by foreign producers who usually take advantage of economies of scale in production due to their access to better production technology. The positive coefficient (286.91) of t he GDP growth rate indicates that increase in the GDP also moves domestic agricultural production in the same direction. This shows that increased domestic economic activity has the impact of increasing the domestic agricultural production. This may be due to the fact that most economic activity in the country is related to agriculture. The result also shows that population increases has been a major contribution to domestic agricultural production in Nigeria with the coefficient (18424.73). This may be due to the fact that majority of the populace are engaged in agriculture, meaning more hand on the farm as population increases. The coefficient of consumer price index was positive (8.49). This shows that as consumer price increases domestic agricultural production also increases’, meaning that domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in consumer prices. This may be due to the fact that increase in price stimulates supply on the farmer’s side leading to more production of food. More agro-processing activities must therefore be embarked upon in order that farmers may be able to dispose of their produce at fairly reasonable prices. The result of the coefficient (0.04) of government expenditure was positive, that is domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in government expenditure, meaning that as government expends more on agriculture, domestic  agricultural production also increases. The reason why it was not significant might be due to the fact that government has not been investing so much on agriculture over the years.